Before and after: temperature correlations before and with Australian greenhouse emissions – Part I

In two previous posts (here and here), I considered the relationship between England and Wales Precipitation (EWP) and Central England Temperature (CET) and showed that:

1. the relationships in “summer” (April to September) and “winter” (November to February) are opposite in sign
• in “summer” the relationship between EWP and CET is negative, whereas in “winter” it is positive
• these differences are naturally due to the greater temperature variation of dry continental airflows producing low EWP values vis-à-vis moist maritime ones providing high EWP values
2. despite a definite climatic impact through greenhouse emissions from Australia, South Africa and the Arab Gulf States, these relationships remain essentially the same as they were pre-1974 or even pre-1895

In this and the following post I will have a look at the relationship of winter CET with winter temperatures in various parts of the United States, with the aim of finding out whether a change in basic relationship has occurred between temperatures on a more global scale.
 
Ever since the discovery of the North Atlantic Oscillation in the middle nineteenth century, and especially since Frederick Löwe’s ‘The Temperature See-Saw between Western Greenland and Europe’, which celebrates its fiftieth anniversary this year, it has long been known that winter temperatures in the CET area, and as far east as the Ural Mountains, show a strong inverse correlation with those in western Greenland (but not necessarily eastern Greenland). It is important to recognise, as Löwe did, that winter temperatures in Greenland and other regions of the true Arctic (defined as those areas above the northern timberline) showed a major abrupt rise during the 1920s, as can be seen via the following graph:

Global virgin period northern winter temperatures before and after 1920. Note the large increase in northwest Greenland and other regions of the true Arctic and contrast with erratic changes elsewhere

We can see Löwe’s observations clearly for the very cold months over the UK in January and February 1895:

Note here that this figure was across western Greenland, as Löwe noted in his original article, much further above normals from 1881 to 1910 than this picture shows. Anomalies relative to 1881 to 1910 means reached during the first three months of 1895 as high as +6.9˚C or +12.4˚F in northwest Greenland. When we look at the next subzero UK or CET mean temperature in 1939/1940 we see the anticorrelation more clearly:

January to March 1947 was the first example of this anticorrelation to be widely publicised by the meteorological journals, owing to Jerome Namias’ Monthly Weather Review article ‘Characteristics of the General Circulation over the Northern Hemisphere during the Abnormal Winter 1946/47’ showing how abnormal was the easterly flow both at sea level and aloft during February and March:

1962/1963, though the third-coldest winter in the CET series, the coldest therein since 1739/1740, and the coldest over the UK since at least 1813/1814 (January 1814 had an estimated UK mean temperature of -3.4˚C or 25.9˚F, 1.4˚C or 2.52˚F colder than any month since) was less publicised at the time, but still demonstrates the same relationship observed in 1895, 1940 and 1947. Löwe shows that previously in 1846/1847, another cold winter in Europe was also very warm in western Greenland.

December 2010, despite the severe impact of Australian greenhouse emissions, remains a “classic” map over the high latitudes nonetheless:

We also naturally observe anticorrelation in mild UK winters that were very cold over western Greenland, though even if globally no warmer, such winters tend to see reduced energy demand due to warmth over more-populated areas. This is clear in the winter of 1883/1884, the coldest on record over western Greenland but among the ten warmest of the nineteenth century in CET – and more famous for record heavy rainfall in Los Angeles and San Diego, sometimes blamed on the previous August’s Krakatoa eruption:

The winter of 1897/1898, which began forty years of mild winters over the UK, is another conspicuous example:

More modern examples can be seen in the winters of 1921/1922, 1974/1975, 1988/1989 and 1992/1993. (I have used a 1921-1974 base period to show how unusual 1992/1993 was compared to the post-1920 mean, within which period it constitutes the coldest winter in the Greenlandic capital Nuuk). Despite the modest UK departure, the cold over Northeast Africa and warmth over Eastern Europe shows a clear positive NAO signal for this winter.

If we look at the above cold UK winter months, we might notice that there seems to be a pattern of cold weather in the southeast of North America and warm weather in the northwest, including Alaska. The warm winters do – to a smaller extent – seem to follow the reverse pattern of warm weather in the southeast and cold weather in the northwest and Alaska. To test this on a broader scale, I will take a representative selection of states and stations in the United States and see whether:

1. these observed predictions do hold
• I will measure this by means of the virgin (up to 1974) Spearman ρ Pearson r correlation coefficients between CET and the winter temperatures of each North American region
2. following from the basic aim outlined at the start, testing whether these relationship still hold for the period influenced or completely controlled by Australian greenhouse emissions

Florida (Southeast Region)

For Florida, representing the southeastern United States, we see a very simple positive correlation based on both Spearman and Pearson coefficients (not significantly different) for both the virgin period and even the post-1997 period where the influence of largely Australian-made greenhouse pollution took a further step beyond what it was from 1974 to 1997. Indeed, for all three colours of dots there is a clear line of best fit.

Ohio Valley Region (WV, KY, TN, OH, IN, IL, MO)

For the Ohio Valley Region, north of Florida, the graph is essentially similar in shape (only with of course vastly cooler temperatures). Winter temperature clearly correlates positively with CET, and this correlation is not contradicted except by a few outliers such as 2013/2014 and 1898/1899.

Texas (South Central Region)

Here, unlike the more easterly regions of the United States, only a slight positive correlation exists, with the virgin Spearman and Pearson standard deviations only a third of those for Florida and the Ohio Valley region.

The thing to do here is to look closely at the light red and dark red diamonds and see whether they form a similar sort of graph to the white diamonds. Without detailed calculation, it appears that in fact they do. Looking closely at the graph of CET versus Texas winter temperatures certainly visualises a similar shape for the diamonds of all three colours, although the full-period Spearman and Pearson correlations are considerably higher than for the three climate periods (1896 to 1974, 1975 to 1997 and since 1998) taken separately. Most especially, there are no extreme outliers coloured light or dark red – which could theoretically occur if opposing influence of natural variability and man-made greenhouse emissions gave different results over Texas and the UK.

Maine (Northeast Region)

Maine, lying near the boundary between positive temperature correlations with NAO to the south and negative correlations to the north, shows a more consistent increase in winter temperatures than seen in the southern United States. As can be seen, the virgin Spearman and Pearson correlations with CET are near zero, but for the whole period a positive correlation is definitely detectable; however, the lack of diamonds in the bottom left is notable compared to the Ohio Valley. Like Texas, however, there are no outliers caused by differential response when global warming and natural variability oppose one another.

If we look at the dark red diamonds, it is clear that those at the top show a full spread re their CET value. The same is clearly true of the lighter red diamonds – the temperature in Maine in the cold UK winter of 1978/1979 and the very warm winter of 1974/1975 – nor does any pattern exist for the dark red diamonds. Thus, Maine, like the southeastern regions, does not contradict the thesis that no change in natural relationships of CET with temperatures elsewhere has been caused by Australian greenhouse emissions.

Conclusion

We can see that, from out studies relating CET winter temperature to winter temperatures in the eastern half of the United States that:

1. owing to greenhouse gas emissions largely sourced from Australia, South Africa and the Arab Gulf States, temperatures have risen steadily since 1975 in both the UK and eastern North America
2. before 1975 definite natural positive relationships existed between UK winter temperatures and winter temperatures in southeastern North America
3. no significant relationship exists between UK winter temperatures and those in:
1. south-central North America (Texas)
2. east-central North America (Maine) 
4. despite the marked increase in all regions’ temperatures, the relationships between them have not changed substantially under the influence of man-made greenhouse emissions largely sourced from a few mineral-rich desert states

A amazing picture for a Christian?!

Although I have been familiar with Robert Spencer for almost a decade now and respect his opinions – which after all do reflect what I read upon reading the Koran as a teenager – one recent discovery has been quite astonishingly funny and strange to me.

Back in 2007, a few years after his Politically Incorrect Guide to Islam (and the Crusades) hit the New York Times bestseller list, Robert Spencer did a segment on “Blogging the Qur’an” in which Spencer gave his own interpretation of what the Qur’an says and how it relates to jihad today against Israel and the West.

Most of the material in Spencer’s blog is very familiar to me, but there is one thing in the post on Surat-as-Sajda (“Chapter of the Adoration” or “Chapter of the Prostration”) that belies a lack of understanding of modern secularisation:

It is rather astonishing that someone as learned as Robert Spencer would place a picture – even a mildly satirical one – of AC/DC to head a post about the Qur’an!

As you can see, above the text for Spencer’s interpretation of Surat-as-Sajda, there is a humorised picture of none other than AC/DC! I have no idea what Spencer was intending to do – and in other parts of his “Blogging the Qur’an” series I do often sort of like his pictures and admire their humour – but there are some facts about AC/DC that ought to make anyone who is a Catholic like Spencer not wish to put them on a blog trying to refute or criticise the Qur’an. Also, whereas Spencer’s other pictures in his “Blogging the Qur’an” series, notably the one for Surat-al-Qamar with its joke about what Neil Armstrong’s landing means for the Qur’an, can be arrestingly funny and surreal, it is impossible to see what Spencer wishes to achieve by putting AC/DC on a picture of a chapter called “The Prostration”?

The most important thing is that the rise of AC/DC coincided with the most rapid decline in the influence of Christianity and growth of extramarital sex in the West – a growth dated to around the early 1980s when young people where beginning to listen in millions to Highway to Hell, Back in Black, and For Those About to Rock We Salute You. I have in many previous posts outlined the alarming things condoning violence and forced sex within the AC/DC discography, but it has for some years seemed to me that the loud noise of AC/DC’s music was a uniquely effective tool to turn Westerners away from Christian prayer and the needed quiet therefor, as Rod Dreher, Sara Maitland and many others have noted.

A second thing, particularly notable to my mind, is the similarity in method of composition between the Qur’an and the AC/DC discography – similarities that exceed the support for violence that the two also share in common and distinguish them from the New Testament:

1. rather than being historical narratives like the Bible, both the Qur’an and the AC/DC discography are collections of sermons where historical material is never told for its own sake, but is used to illuminate various points pertaining to the worldview of Islam or of AC/DC as a whole
2. both the Qur’an and the AC/DC discography say what they say countless times, and rely strongly upon incantatory effects to overcome their repetitive nature and inculcate a particular and complete worldview into the listener
• I can testify that such was occurring when a schoolmate who bullied me simultaneously graffitied my ruler “AC/DC” – if he were listening to what AC/DC were saying he would feel he had a right to bully to prove his strength

The Qur’an can hardly be referring to the kinds of sound made throughout the AC/DC discography in its descriptions of Hell! In addition, the extent to which AC/DC’s (implied) views on ethics and politics contradict all the Abrahamic religions is utterly absolute and could not have been comprehended by people living in a harsh, low-productivity desert where moral religions are the rule (of course Angus and Malcolm Young, Bon Scott and Brian Johnson originated from the cool, protein-rich land and seas of Scotland).

If the picture is trying to suggest AC/DC “prostrate” themselves before “rock and roll”, Spencer’s picture remains ludicrous when the whole message of the AC/DC discography is the precise opposite of a message of humility and prostration. Rather, the consistent message of the AC/DC discography is one of absolute personal power and total absence of moral law, whereby good is seen in terms of personal rights to do whatever one wants without the tiniest reference to relationships or even harmony with others. Islam may not emphasise relationships with others as Christianity does – Islam is a “hybrid” vision in emphasising hostility towards unbelievers but strong ties within the community of Muslims – but it is nothing like what AC/DC have been preaching for over four decades.

What the point of a devout Catholic placing a picture of one of the most influential apostles of secularisation on a blog about the Qur’an is remains unknown to me, and is really, really silly – so much so as to create humour!

Climate change in the “chinook belt”: Fairbanks winters’ extreme temperatures

As an indirect result of reading about the problem of homelessness in Anchorage (which in winter is not the coldest “major” city in North America, being milder than Fargo, Duluth, Winnipeg, Regina and Saskatoon), I have had a look at the winter climate of Fairbanks. Fairbanks is the coldest major city in North America and the third coldest over 100,000 in the world (though a long way behind Yakutsk and Norilsk which are both about 6.5˚C or 11.6˚F colder), but its winter climate is extremely variable due to Fairbanks’ location in the lee of the North American Cordillera.

All along from Interior Alaska to West Texas, this positioning produces a winter climate influenced by “chinooks”, warm adiabatic winds descending from mountains over 4,000 metres high. When chinooks are present, winter temperatures can be extremely warm relative to long-term averages, creating temperature variation over this “chinook belt” that are not rivalled anywhere else in the world. For instance, although the mean January temperature in Fairbanks is -10˚F or -23.3˚C, absolute maxima are as high as 10˚C or 50˚F. In contrast, in East Asia places with similar average January temperatures seldom if ever top freezing. Further south in the “chinook belt”, similar contrasts continue: at Havre, Montana where the mean for January is around -9˚C or 16˚F the record maximum is 68˚F or 20˚C whereas Shěnyàng with a similar average has never exceeded 8.6˚C, and  Rapid City in South Dakota with an average of -3˚C has an absolute maximum of 24˚C – hotter than Melbourne’s absolute midwinter maximum of 22.2˚C.

In fact, in the record-warm February 1954 (actually the third-coolest here in Melbourne since 1895) Rapid City was hotter than Melbourne on one day (before checking I assumed that number to be much greater) but via the graph below one can nonetheless clearly see the contrast between abnormally cool weather here and abnormally warm weather in the central and southern “chinook belt”:

Global temperature anomalies for February 1954 relative to 1880 to 1974 mean, courtesy of Goddard Institute for Space Studies

Comparative daily maximum temperatures for Melbourne, Victoria, Australia and Rapid City, South Dakota, United States in February 1954 (˚C)

Getting back to Fairbanks, I compiled a graph for all winters since complete records began in 1906/1907 of number of mornings that reached to -36˚F or -38˚C. As the daily mean temperature, -38˚C constitutes the Köppen threshold for an extreme subarctic climate (Dfd or Dwd, as found in northeastern Siberia),:

As we can see, there have been a clear decrease in the number of minima under -36˚F or -38˚C (exactly -37.777777...˚C) since man-made greenhouse emissions took firm control of the climate in the middle 1970s. Whereas thirteen winters were more than one virgin standard deviation above the mean number before 1974, not one has been since. Once does see between 1906 and 1974 a seemingly natural quasi-regular cycle of milder and colder winters, with peaks in extreme cold observed between 1932 and 1934, and during a longer period between 1964/1965 (the record with 45 minima below -36˚F) and 1975/1976. This cycle even persists into the post-1974 period with the minimum circa 1987 (only two nights below -36˚F in three winters 1985/1986 to 1987/1988), but the effect of greenhouse emissions from Australian coal power and road transport can be seen already in the 25-year mean, which under preindustrial or even early-industrial CO₂ levels would likely have increased substantially during the 2000s – a viewpoint professional studies appear to agree with.

If we have a look at the other (more distinctive) side of the “chinook belt” climate – abnormally warm winter days relative to position – we see a different story:

Unlike with very cold weather, we do not see a systematic increase in very warm weather over the (northern) “chinook belt”. There is a distinct peak in November to February days above 0˚C around 1980 – an era which still contains Fairbanks’ warmest November (1979), February (1980) and January (1981 – with seventeen days topping freezing), but also contains a record cold February 1979 and near-record cold December 1980. I have not yet checked other regions of North America, but it’s possible that the great natural variability of winter weather in the “chinook belt”, as this last graph shows, can overshadow the drastic effect of Australian coal power, land clearing and road transport upon the atmospheric circulation of the Earth.

This perception may also explain the strong Republican leanings of the “chinook belt” compared to the rest of North America away from the low-nutrient and naturally conservative non-“Black Belt” South. Like Australians who are used to extremes of drought and flood, people in the “chinook belt” are used to such changeable winter weather than the effects of their own greenhouse emissions may seem much smaller than to people from regions without potential warming Föhn winds in a very cold climate.

Abebooks’ ‘Bad to the Bone: The Worst Children in Literature’

Today, Abebooks, a very valuable book site for the old books I collect – old Wisdens most especially – have asked its readers to compile a list of the “worst children in literature”. I know about these thoughts of stories more as allegory than reading, but with a little if by no means much of the wider context needed, I will give basic look. The list is divided into a top ten and “dishonorable” mentions, like the Intercollegiate Studies Institute’s 50 Worst Books list.

The Top Ten:

1. Flashman from Tom Brown’s School Days by Thomas Hughes
• Flashman, the notorious bully of Rugby School is Tom Brown's nemesis. He also got a redressing care of George MacDonald Fraser.
2. Missie from The Innocents by Nette Hiltons
• Three words: “psychopathic child killer”.
3. Pandora and Marmaduke from Who Was Oswald Fish? by A.N. Wilson
• A pair of nine-year-olds blackmail their elders to the point of causing their suicide.
4. Mary Tilford from The Children’s Hour by Lillian Hellman
• She may not murder but is “quite a piece of work”.
5. Frank from The Boy who Followed Ripley by Patricia Highsmith
• He murders his father then seeks out career criminal Tom Ripley.
6. Noboru from The Sailor who Fell from Grace With The Sea by Yukio Mishima
• The son of Ryuji, who belongs to a savage gang of boys who believe in “objectivity”
7. Angelo Saint from Wicked Angel by Taylor Caldwell 
• Cherub-faced youngster with no moral compass or remorse
8. Josephine Leonides from Crooked House by Agatha Christie
• Manipulates her family by saying she knows who killed the family patriarch.
9. The Girls of St. Trinians in Hurrah for St Trinians by Ronald Searle
• The girls of this boarding school would make Angela Brazil faint in horror.
10. Cathy Ames from East of Eden by John Steinbeck
• She ages through the book, but this is a terrible child who becomes a worse adult

Other Children Gone Wrong:

• Veda from Mildred Pierce by James M. Cain
• This daughter is the queen of blackmail and deceit.
• Frank from The Wasp Factory by Iain Banks
• It’s hard to describe Frank and his rituals – he’s very, very twisted.
• The Baby in Rosemary’s Baby by Ira Levin
• This infamous child is every parent’s worst nightmare.
• Rosalind from In the Woods by Tana French
• As the older sister of a murder victim, Rosalind becomes entwined in the investigation.
• Vernon Little from Vernon God Little by DBC Pierre
• While not evil like some on the list, this foul-mouthed reprobate has few virtues.
• Regan MacNeil from The Exorcist by William Peter Blatty
• It wasn’t Regan’s fault that a demonic spirit possessed her.
• Rhoda from The Bad Seed by William March
• It’s nearly impossible for a parent to see that their child was born bad.
• Pinkie Brown from Brighton Rock by Graham Greene
• The seventeen-year-old Pinkie is a merciless thug in this classic.
• Rynn Jacobs from The Little Girl who Lives down the Lane by Laird König
• Rynn is a mysterious child with an absent poet of a father and a nose for trouble.
• Christine Hargensen from Carrie by Stephen King
• “Chris” is the mean-spirited snobbish teenage girl who leads the torment of Carrie.
• Leading William from ‘All Summer in a Day’ by Ray Bradbury (found in The Stories of Ray Bradbury)
  • He enacts terrible psychological punishment on classmate Margot.
• Matilda from The Monk by Matthew Gregory Lewis
• Samuel Taylor Coleridge said Matilda was “superior in wickedness to the most wicked of men.”
• One of the “Twins” in The Other by Tom Tryon
• A boy whose twin brother is intertwined with a series of deaths in a rural community.
• Ben from The Fifth Child by Doris Lessing
• This grotesque, violent and hateful child is tearing a family apart.
• Kevin from We Need to Talk about Kevin by Lionel Shriver
• Kevin is a sociopath who murders several classmates in a school massacre.
• Jack from Lord of the Flies by William Golding
• He epitomises the worst aspects of human nature in this must-read.
• Damien from The Omen by David Seltzer
• This child from hell turns out to be the Antichrist.
• Regina Afton from Some Girls Are by Courtney Summers
• After terrorising others she is cast out of her clique to become the victim of her own bullying.
• Gage Creed from Pet Sematary by Stephen King
• Another example of demonic possession ruining a childhood.
• Nick from Hate List by Jennifer Brown
• In order to impress his high school sweetheart, Nick goes off the rails.
• Jacob from Before and After by Rosellen Brown
• A family struggles after their teenage son murders his girlfriend.
• The boys from Boy A by Jonathan Trigell
• “Boy A” and “Boy B” were both convicted of murdering a young girl.
• The Children in Let’s Go Play at The Adams by Mendal W. Johnson
• A group of children are left alone and run amok in ways you would never imagine.
• Mary Katherine “Merricat” Blackwood from We Have Always Lived in the Castle by Shirley Jackson
• She cares for her sister Constance but something is not right with this 18-year-old.

I do know vaguely about The Exorcist – the 1973 movie based upon the book was the source for the title of Pantera’s 1992 breakthrough album Vulgar Display of Power – one seminal album for that generation coming of age in today’s Enriched World. Rosemary’s Baby was during the same period turned into a film of a similar genre, aiming to show to adults of the era the wickedness of children. I do know about several authors here, such as Steinbeck, A.N. Wilson, Highsmith, Christie, Greene, Lessing and Golding, but have never read any books here.

Meat scarcity limits brain growth

Having considerable knowledge of anthropological history, I have long been sceptical of demands for veganism even on grounds of reduced greenhouse gas emissions. Free-market economics unanimously if without the tiniest fanfare says that vegetable protein even if it emits much less greenhouse gases is incomparably more labour- and land-inefficient than animal protein. History backs up this fact, showing that only in Mesoamerica and Andean South America on the best soils available to ancient farmers could humans de facto abandon near completely animal food, and even there it meant major nutritional deficiencies. Today, the best plant proteins come from regions that gained the majority of their protein from the rich seas of East Asia, nourished by rivers with huge sediment loads from the Asian mountains.

It is clear form this map that Australian-made (directly and indirectly) greenhouse pollution is tipping the planet to dangerous climate change. 1.5˚C above the “virgin” temperature mean is known to be the maximum level sustainable before irreversible ecological changes. Note the negative anomalies on the east coasts of the Northern Hemisphere due to continental westerly flow.

Now, as the results of Australia’s dreadful performance in greenhouse emissions and their reduction become even clearer, there will no doubt be major calls to abandon animal-based foods because their production involves an enormous carbon footprint from land clearing in Australia. However, the ideal of eliminating animal foods is one which I have long been sceptical of for nutritional reasons. Documentation – although implicit – of nutrient deficiencies in Eurasia being eliminated by increased affordability of meat after industrialisation is something I have been long aware of, for instance from being lectured about the minimum in human height before the Industrial Revolution.

This month, Nature authors Katherine D. Zink and Daniel E. Lieberman in their ‘Impact of meat and Lower Palaeolithic food processing techniques on chewing in humans’ are providing clear evidence that brain growth to present sizes in humans would be very difficult on anything approaching a vegan diet. They argue that, even after cooking developed, masticatory demands under a strictly vegan diet would be too high for brain growth to anything like present cranial capacities of races native to RoW (the world outside of Australia and Southern Africa). Time in ‘Sorry Vegans: Here’s How Meat-Eating Made Us Human’ shows masticatory energy consumption to be almost fifty percent greater under a vegan diet than under a diet that was one-third meat (smaller than the actual proportion of meat in the diet of almost all documented Enriched World hunter/gatherers).

If we glance Richard Lynn’s studies of race differences in intelligence, it is extremely tempting to believe that, indeed, protein scarcity remains the limiting factor in brain growth. Observed genotypic IQs of Bushmen, Pygmies and Australian Aborigines range from 55 to 65, whereas those of RoW peoples range from 80 to 110. It’s indeed possible that these differences between ASA and RoW peoples are understated because:

1. with most preindustrial RoW peoples, nutrient deficiencies are likely to affect IQ
• however, Lynn’s data do suggest diet may have more effect on ASA peoples than RoW because variation between different studies is considerable among Australian Aborigines (52 to 74, which may reflect nutritional effects)
2. partial desocialisation, or the elimination of cooperative breeding, which is the normal process upon movement of a cooperative species to more nutrient-rich soils (e.g. the family Paridae upon colonising Eurasia from Africa) may influence RoW peoples especially in the Western Hemisphere, and produce less high IQ values
• Lynn’s data do suggest possibility of partial desocialisation in the extratropical Americas as phenotypic IQs of Native Americans in Canada and the US are no higher than in Latin America
• With Native Americans in Chile and Argentina, who lived on the richest soils of any subcontinent but were subject to a relentless “hierarchism as a revolt against nature” that made its flora and fauna the most undomesticable in the world and precluded civilised agricultural societies, no IQ data exist.
• Cranial capacity data suggest higher IQs than other Native Americans, but not so high as Southern Cone Native Americans’ very rich soils, fertile seas and very largely animal-protein-based diets would predict
3. if what Zink and Lieberman say is true, it’s highly plausible that growth of intelligence was consistently limited or rolled back to the point of a bottleneck upon ancient African soils as humans exhausted the available animal protein. Protein scarcity would select for lower genotypic IQ, but this bottleneck was removed upon movement to richer European or Asian soils
4. Evidence for higher cranial capacities than even East Asians and Arctic Peoples are found amongst Cro-Magnon Man, who lived in the eutrophic Ice Age European environment with extremely abundant protein

For all its unanswered questions, Time and Nature’s study remains fascinating for what they suggest about the history of human encephalisation.